Eski Mısır’ın Sırrı: Firavunlar Bu İmkânsız Yapıları Nasıl İnşa Etti? | Tarihi Belgesel

Bu video, Eski Mısır’ın Eski Krallık döneminde firavunların nasıl “imkânsız” görünen yapıları inşa ettiğini sakin ve anlaşılır bir dille anlatıyor. Mısır tarihinin en ihtişamlı dönemlerinden biri olan bu çağda; piramitlerin arkasındaki düşünce, organizasyon, iş gücü ve mühendislik yaklaşımı huzurlu bir tarih atmosferi içerisinde ele alınıyor.

Firavunların güç anlayışı, devlet yönetimi, mimari yenilikler, taş ocaklarından şantiye alanlarına uzanan inşa süreçleri ve dönemin günlük hayatı yumuşak ve rahatlatıcı bir anlatımla aktarılıyor. Djoser, Sneferu ve Khufu gibi büyük firavunların izlerini takip ederek Eski Krallık’ın gizemli dünyasını adım adım keşfediyoruz.

Bu video; hem tarih meraklıları hem de uyku öncesi sakin bir anlatım arayan izleyiciler için ideal bir belgesel niteliği taşır.

00:00 – Giriş
01:10 – Eski Krallık Mısır’ın Genel Atmosferi
02:40 – Firavun Gücünün Doğuşu
04:15 – Djoser ve İlk Büyük Yapılar
06:00 – Basamak Piramitlerinin Mimari Yeniliği
07:35 – Sneferu Dönemi: Büyük Dönüşüm
09:10 – Kırık Piramit ve Kızıl Piramit’in İnşası
10:55 – Khufu’nun Yükselişi
12:20 – Keops Piramidi’nin Tasarım Süreci
14:05 – Taş Ocaklarından Şantiyeye Uzanan Yol
15:40 – İşçi Köyleri ve Günlük Hayat
17:15 – İnşaat Teknikleri ve Aletler
18:50 – Firavunların Dini Rolü
20:25 – Güneş Kültü ve Tanrılar
22:00 – Eski Krallık Ekonomisi ve Kaynak Yönetimi
23:30 – Devlet Organizasyonu ve Bürokrasi
25:05 – Firavunun Halk Üzerindeki Etkisi
26:40 – Piramitlerin Politik Anlamı
28:10 – Mezarlık Alanları ve Tapınak Düzeni
29:40 – Mimari Bilginin Kuşaktan Kuşağa Aktarılması
31:05 – Eski Krallık’ın Çöküş Süreci
32:30 – Dış Etkenler ve İç Sorunlar
33:55 – Eski Mısır’ın Mirası
35:10 – Genel Değerlendirme
35:40 – Kapanış

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On the vast plateau overlooking Cairo, rise three great pyramids, flanked by a colossal statue, half-man, half-lion, standing guard. These monuments, especially the largest, the Great Pyramid of Giza, carry a mystery that remains potent even today . Even ancient writers were captivated by their sight. From the 5th century BC onward, thinkers from various parts of the Mediterranean world attempted to understand how these structures were constructed. Herodotus, the father of history, in his Histories, where he recounts the Persians, attributes the Great Pyramid to Cheops. According to him, this ruler employed 100,000 men over 20 years to build the monument . Centuries later, the Egyptian priest Maneto, in his Egyptian work, describes the pyramid’s builder as a Sufi. Both names are variations of the word Kufu, and at least some of these accounts are based on reality. Some time later, Antipater of Sidon was one of the first to list the two wonders of the world , writing that the Great Pyramid was the largest . Subsequently, Diodorus Syculus, Strabo, and a century later, Pliny the Elder, left detailed texts detailing the secrets of this massive structure. Thus, the pyramids became a phenomenon that piqued humanity’s curiosity even at that time . What is truly surprising, however, is that these structures do not date from the mature period of an advanced civilization, but rather from a very early stage of Egyptian history . The Great Pyramid and its surrounding monuments were built in the first half of 3,000 BC , more than 4,500 years ago. This period represents the beginning of the Old Kingdom, the first of the three great eras of ancient Egypt . The rise of the Old Kingdom was directly linked to Egypt’s exceptional geographical location . Many of the world’s earliest developed civilizations lie between 15 and 45 degrees north of the Equator. This zone , with its unique temperature and water resources, allowed for the natural development of agriculture . Therefore, it is no coincidence that the first major urban civilizations, from Mesoamerica to China, from the Indus Valley to Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, emerged along this line . Egypt benefited from this location twice. First, its location at the western end of the Fertile Crescent. With the end of the last Bulu period, rich alluvial soils formed along this crescent, contributing to the rapid development of agriculture in the Neolithic period. Second, the Nile River, which gave life to Egypt, emerged as two distinct branches in the Great Lakes region of Central Africa and Ethiopia . The White Nile and the Blue Nile join at the Harum and flow northward into Egypt. The ancient Egyptians divided their country into two parts according to the Nile’s flow . Despite being further south, Upper Egypt, due to its high topography, was the region where the river flowed more regularly. Lower Egypt, on the other hand, was the northern part, where the Nile flowed downhill into a massive delta. The Delta region, in particular, offered excellent conditions for agriculture. However, Egypt’s true advantage was the Nile’s annual floods. Before the Aswan Dam was built, the Nile flooded regularly every year, leaving behind a fertile alluvial layer when the waters receded. This land was the primary resource that enabled a country surrounded by arid deserts to feed its vast populations. This annual cycle was also central to ancient Egyptian religious life. Prayers were made to gods such as Osiris, Hapi, and Hınum for a favorable flood and another year of fertility . Before the Old Kingdom, Egypt experienced a long preparatory period called the Predynastic Period . The precise beginning of this period is uncertain because people had lived along the Nile by hunting and gathering for hundreds of thousands of years. However, with the end of the last ice age, lifestyles began to change . Realizing that wild plants like barley and wheat regrow at the same times each year, communities developed agriculture by deliberately collecting and planting seeds. This laid the foundation for permanent settlements in Egypt. With the advent of agriculture, more refined stone and copper tools were produced. Pottery firing developed. Large villages grew into towns. The first hints of civilization began to appear along the banks of the Nile and in the delta . These developments occurred between 5 and 4,000 BC, during the Predynastic Period. Cultural advances around 3500 BC The world’s oldest known board game, Senet, emerged during this period . The region’s inhabitants traded with the Levant and Mesopotamia, and ideas and technologies spread rapidly. The development of hieroglyphs in Egypt also coincides with this period. This writing system dates shortly after the emergence of cuneiform in Mesopotamia. Despite this cultural advance, the vast region stretching from the Nile Delta to Nubia was still not politically unified . This unification occurred around 3100 BC. However, the identity of the person who orchestrated this process remains semi-legendary. The widely accepted view is that Narmer, the ruler who unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was also known in some sources as Menes. Narmer is considered the founder of the First Dynasty. However, the Old Kingdom period begins after him. The fragmentary evidence found indicates that Narmer first came to power in Upper Egypt and then conquered Lower Egypt, uniting the two regions under a single rule. The idea that ancient Egypt was formed from the union of two separate kingdoms persisted as both a political and cultural symbol for the next millennia. Rulers were depicted wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt and the red crown of Lower Egypt, one above the other. One of the most impressive archaeological evidence of this unification is the Narmer Palette. This perfectly preserved carved stone palette shows the king wearing only the white crown on one side, while on the other side he wears both crowns. This is one of the main reasons why Narmer is considered the first ruler of unified Egypt. Calling him a pharaoh is technically inappropriate for his time. The title pharaoh emerged during the New Kingdom period in the mid-second millennium BC. However, in historiography, this title is used retroactively to refer to all Egyptian rulers. Narmer’s unification marked the beginning of dynastic Egyptian history. However, the Old Kingdom is generally referred to as the Third Dynasty. Therefore, the approximately 400-year period from Narmer to the beginning of the Old Kingdom, encompassing the reigns of the First and Second Dynasties, is called the Early Dynastic Period. There are several reasons for the distinction between the Early Dynasty and the Old Kingdom . The first period was a period when the Unified State was still weak and its power slowly grew. While trade with the Levantine cities and the Sumerian states of Mesopotamia had begun during the time of Narmer , these connections became much more intense during the Old Kingdom. Similarly, Egypt’s religious structure was taking shape in the early dynastic years. Shared deities, myths, and rituals along the Nile gradually spread throughout the country, forming the cultural foundation of the later Old Kingdom. The kings of the First and Second Dynasties did not build monumental pyramids for the afterlife. However, they did construct elaborate burial grounds. These were generally lined with mud bricks and known as mastabas. Nevertheless, these tombs were quite modest compared to the massive stone pyramids that would emerge during the Old Kingdom . The Old Kingdom truly began with the Third Dynasty, around 2700 BC. This was the first time that rulers began to build giant stone pyramid tombs for themselves . That’s why, in the 19th century, the German Egyptologist Charles von Bunson identified the first of ancient Egypt’s three great periods of prosperity with the Third Dynasty. For him, the distinguishing feature of this era was clear: it was the period when the greatest pyramids in history were built . These colossal structures had three major centers: Sakkara, Dahshur, and the Giza Plateau. Giza is the most famous today. The Great Pyramid of Kufu, the Pyramid of Khafre, and Sifengsi surpass all others. However, the early pyramids at Sakkara and Dahshur are equally important, both architecturally and culturally. Yet, defining the ancient kingdom solely by the pyramids would be inadequate. This era also marked the extraordinary strengthening of the central administration, the consolidation of state organization, and the peak of cultural splendor . During the early dynastic period, the nascent state structure had matured. The military capacity, economic order, and the immense logistics required for the construction of these monuments were completely under state control. This period also saw the rise of Memphis, ancient Egypt’s first major capital. It rose. Located just south of modern Cairo, this city, with a population of tens of thousands, became the center of royal power and the political heart of the Old Kingdom. The Old Kingdom generally encompasses the Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Dynasties . However, whether the Seventh Dynasty should be included within this period is still a matter of debate. This period did not leave as rich a written record as the Middle and New Kingdoms. Therefore, understanding the Old Kingdom relies heavily on archaeology and records from later periods. However, we do have some critical sources. King lists such as the Turin List and the Abydos List, Maneton’s accounts, and excavations around the pyramids. Studies of the workers’ villages at Giza are among the most valuable findings that allow us to understand the daily life of the Old Kingdom. Papyri have survived from this period, with most surviving examples being accidental. However, sculptures, pottery, grave goods, and hieroglyphic fragments are more abundant. However, since everything occurred approximately 4,500 years ago, the history of this period must always be completed from missing pieces. The opening of the Third Dynasty is generally associated with King Joser. While his dynastic founder status is debatable because king lists are always contradictory , most researchers place his reign around 2686 BC. Jer was probably the most powerful ruler of the dynasty, and his reign lasted approximately 20 to 30 years. What makes him so memorable is his construction of the first great pyramid of the Old Kingdom and the entire history of Egypt . Rising at Saqqara, this structure is known today as the Pyramid of Doser, or the Step Pyramid. A massive stone monument composed of six stepped layers, this tomb stands over 200 feet high and features an enormous amount of stone blocks. It appears to have been initially planned as a mastaba, but Imhotep, the vizier and architect of Jos, gradually enlarged the design and transformed it into a pyramid . Thus emerged the first great pyramid of the Old Kingdom , setting a benchmark for all subsequent monumental tomb projects . Its substantial survival after nearly 4,700 years is impressive evidence of the engineering reach and ambition of this period. Furthermore, Dioscer’s pyramid was actually at the center of a much grander vision. A massive funerary complex consisting of temples, courtyards, statues, and additional tombs served as the model for all subsequent monumental projects of the ancient kingdom. This arrangement became a template for the future of both sacred architecture and state organization . The Third Dynasty lasted until approximately 2610 BC . While theoretically it appears to have been a relatively orderly period with a small number of rulers for approximately 80 years, the available sources make understanding this dynasty extremely difficult. King lists often contradict each other. Names change, and reign lengths do not match. This sparse source structure clearly demonstrates the fragmentary nature of the ancient kingdom’s history. Nevertheless, the general picture is as follows: Jos then succeeded his son, Sekemket, who most likely succeeded him . However, Maneto names him Teti in the Treis der Abydos list. Such inconsistencies make it difficult to establish certainty about the rulers of the ancient kingdom. Sekemeti is followed by Sahcht, Kaaba, and Huni, in that order. None of these rulers appears to have been as powerful as Joser. However, it is known that Kabati commissioned the construction of the layered pyramid of Zaviyet Elaryandanaki. Although it has survived to the present day in ruins, the remains of the structure are still impressive. Both the layered pyramid and the unfinished buried pyramid of Sekemeti share an interesting common feature. Most of the structures were designed as complex tunnels, sunk below ground level, as burial chambers. The complexes surrounding these pyramids also included temples, mastabas, and annexes belonging to the nobility and upper class. The culture of the ancient kingdom was not limited to these monumental tombs. However, one thing can be said with certainty: the labor, resources, and time expended on the construction of such massive pyramids and complexes profoundly shaped the power, organization, and religious beliefs of the society around Memphis with each passing year. Furthermore, the construction of monumental structures in the ancient kingdom was, in fact, a form of contemporary art. Compared to other Neolithic societies, it wasn’t particularly unusual . The New Grangch passage tomb, centuries older than Stonehenge in southern England or the pyramids in Ireland, is a prime example. Such projects required tens of thousands of people to work in stonecutting, brickmaking, and related labor over many years. Much of daily life revolved around agriculture. In villages along the Nile, people lived in simple mud-brick houses, growing wheat, barley, and vegetables in the fertile soil left by the annual floods of the river . A small segment of the population worked in basic industries like pottery, as pottery was essential for carrying water, preserving food, and long-distance trade. Papyrus makers, sculptors, and mural painters also comprised the artisan class of this thriving society. By the Old Kingdom, Egypt’s religious system had reached its full maturity. Contrary to popular belief, it was based on an obsession with life, not death. Egyptians believed that individuals possessed a life force called K. The human body was nourished by food and drink throughout life and needed to be protected to survive after death. Therefore, preserving the body was vital, and the practice of mummification emerged. This process was performed not only on kings but also on the wealthy class and even some animals. It was believed that a person’s life force could be sustained after death. In addition to this belief in the afterlife, the Old Kingdom period featured an extraordinarily complex pantheon of over 1,500 gods and goddesses. As in all the polytheistic religions of the Mediterranean and Western Asia, there was a hierarchy. The supreme god was the sun god Ra. He traveled across the sky by day, bringing light to the world. At night, darkness descended. Osiris, lord of the underworld, was also one of the most important deities of that era. This religious system became one of the foundational pillars of Egyptian civilization and profoundly influenced the beliefs of later civilizations such as Greece and Rome . The 3rd dynasty ended around 2610 BC . The 4th dynasty then began, and Sneferu ascended to the throne as the first ruler of this period. While Sneferu may not be a well-known figure today, he is as important as kings like Kufu and Kafre, who commissioned the construction of the Great Pyramids of Giza . Indeed, without his innovative construction efforts, the Great Pyramid of Giza might not have emerged. Sneferu’s reign is known to have lasted at least 20 years . Some estimates put it closer to 40 years. After him, his son Kufu ascended to the throne and became one of the most critical figures in the history of ancient kingship. Kufu was followed by a brief reign under Jadafre, and then by Kafre for a longer period . Towards the end of the dynasty, he was ruled by Menkaure and then briefly by Shepsesph . Sneferu’s greatest significance lies in the construction of three massive pyramids. These projects revolutionized pyramid architecture, paving the way for Kufu’s ability to construct massive stone structures. The first known pyramid of Sneferu is the Pyramid of Maydum. Located south of Cairo, it originally rose as a steep-sided pyramid. It is considered an improved version of Joser’s step pyramid model. However, much of it collapsed in ancient times, leaving only the core intact. Its appearance resembles a massive stone fortress rather than a pyramid. These innovations clearly demonstrate why the 4th dynasty is considered the golden age of pyramids. It is unclear why Sneferon commissioned a second pyramid. Perhaps he was dissatisfied with the Pyramid of Maiddon and decided to move on to a new design before it was even completed. This second structure is the famous leaning pyramid at the Dahshur necropolis. With its abrupt change of angle that gives the pyramid its name, it is a rare example in Egyptian architecture. A large portion of its outer surface, the rounded limestone cladding, has survived for 4,600 years, making it one of the few examples to have survived. Sneferu’s third major structure is the Red Pyramid. It takes its name from the reddish limestone and, unlike previous pyramids, has a much more consistent, smooth slope. The most important thing is its size. Joser’s building is about 5 It is solid, a testament to the technical maturity achieved in pyramid construction. Architectural experiments conducted during the reign of Sneferu ultimately demonstrated that a truly flat-topped pyramidal form was the most durable solution. The Red Pyramid thus stands as a structure that has withstood the test of time remarkably well. If it weren’t for the monumental structures at Giza, it would be considered one of the world’s greatest wonders today . Its size is more than two-thirds that of the Great Pyramid at Giza . However, the site would soon give way to an even larger monument. All the technical knowledge and experience developed by Sneferu paved the way for the massive pyramid built on the Giza plateau under the orders of his son, Kufu. This site, located near a tributary of the Nile, made it possible to transport over two million stone blocks . Thus, the only surviving wonder of the ancient world was born. Debates have raged for thousands of years about how the Great Pyramid was built. Even Herodotus wrote on the subject in the 5th century BC, recounting stories of Kufu’s forced labor. Some were astonished by the structure’s sheer size, engineering prowess, and the mysteries it left behind . Even today, this monument, with its flawless geometry and the mysteries it leaves behind, intrigues humanity . Egyptologists and archaeologists have now largely uncovered how the Great Pyramid was built. It has been revealed that the area just below the Giza plateau, long referred to as the workers’ village, was actually a massive construction city. It was a vast settlement housing thousands of workers, artisans, administrators , and support staff. Spread over an area of ​​over 24 acres, its surrounding fields and warehouses provided a constant supply of food and materials to the stonecutters . Most of the stone used for the pyramid was quarried in vast quarries in Lower Egypt. The finest granite was brought from Aswand, nearly 1,000 miles away. The Nile’s waterways made it possible to transport such massive masses . The river must have served as a transportation line for the stone blocks from the quarry to the construction site. The result is a massive monument built with 12,000 layers of stone. Inside, there are complex passages, chambers, and a large burial chamber containing the tomb of Kufu. It is thought that narrow shafts extending from this chamber may have been designed to correlate with the stars and celestial positions. The exterior was covered with thin, polished limestone slabs, now missing. The stone pyramidion at the top completed the pyramid like a shining crown. Kufu’s Great Pyramid, with its height exceeding 480 feet, was for thousands of years the tallest man-made structure in the world. However, he soon felt the shadow of his own son. After Kufu’s short- lived son, Jadafre, who ascended to the throne, Kafre built a pyramid of almost the same size nearby. Kafre’s pyramid, including the capstone, reached a height of approximately 470 feet. Therefore, its dimensions are extremely close to Kufu’s. This is the source of the optical illusion that has persisted for centuries about which pyramid was taller. Kafre’s pyramid is one of the few examples with some of its outer casing stones still in place . More importantly, the pyramid of Kafre was built on higher ground than that of his father. This creates an optical illusion that, when viewed from a distance , it appears larger than the massive pyramid of Kufu, despite being smaller . This effect is due to the natural elevation difference of the Giza plateau. Furthermore, according to popular belief, it was Kafre who ordered the construction of the giant Speng, shaped like a lion’s body and a human head. This monument, 240 feet long and 66 feet high, is oriented to face east, toward sunrise . While alternative theories exist, most experts agree that Kafre is the ruler behind this statue. Sneferu, Kufu, and Kafre are considered among the most influential rulers of the ancient kingdom . Joser is the first on this list. Menkaure is credited with building the third and smallest pyramid at Giza. Menka’s pyramid is 213 feet high, making it significantly smaller than the previous two pyramids. The presence of three smaller subsidiary pyramids nearby is noteworthy. These structures likely belonged to queens and were initially over 30 meters high. They have survived to this day in severe damage. The reason for Menkaure’s choice to build on a more modest scale is uncertain. The massive projects of his grandfather, Sineferu, and his father, Kufu, likely placed a heavy burden on the state’s resources. Despite this, the central administration during this period of the Old Kingdom was extremely powerful. This power, capable of organizing tens of thousands of workers, also maintained a powerful army. This enabled the rulers of the 4th Dynasty to expand Egypt’s borders beyond Upper and Lower Egypt . The 4th Dynasty’s power expanded Egypt not only architecturally but also geographically. They advanced south along the Nile into what is now Sudan. This section of the Nile is marked by cataracts that narrow and are interrupted by waterfalls. Despite this, the Egyptians reached the second cataract and established an important colony at Buhen. Buhen became strategic for its copper mining. The copper-tin alloy that opened the door to the Bronze Age was vital to Egypt’s military and technology. The Old Kingdom also expanded into the Sinai Peninsula. The region was crucial both for mining and as a gateway to the Levant. However, control over these regions was not as strong as it would be 1,000 years later during the New Kingdom . Other treasures, forgotten in the shadow of the pyramids, have preserved the Old Kingdom to this day . For example, the small ivory statuette of Kufu found at Abydos, or the life-size statue of his son Kafre, carved from anorthosite Gnice, a nearly indestructible stone. This statue, found in the valley temple next to his pyramid , is considered one of the pinnacles of Old Kingdom sculpture . Under Menkaure, sculpture experienced a golden age. Life-size figures made of greywacke, especially the famous group statue of Menkaure alongside the goddesses Hator and Anput, are among the most fascinating examples of Old Kingdom art today . The giant alabaster statue of Menkaure, exhibited at the Baston Museum of Fine Arts, perfectly reflects the elegance and technical mastery of the period. All these works demonstrate not only the grandeur of the pyramids but also the advanced artistic, cultural, and aesthetic understanding of the ancient kingdom. When the splendor of the 4th dynasty ended, the throne of the old kingdom passed to the 5th dynasty. Although the first ruler, UserCF, reigned briefly, he left a significant archaeological mark. He built a sun temple dedicated to Raya at Abusir, near Memphis, and numerous statues from this structure have survived. Like their predecessors, the 5th dynasty kings continued to build pyramids. However, the scale was now smaller and methods were changing. Usercf’s pyramid at Sakkar is a prime example. Unlike the magnificent pyramid of Jos, built with massive stone blocks, Usercf chose a quicker and cheaper method. He stacked roughly cut stones on top of each other and then clad the exterior with fine limestone. This structure, which appeared impressive at first glance, began to collapse over time when the outer covering fell away, revealing its fragile core . Sahure, the second king of the 5th dynasty, built his own pyramid complex at Abusir, the site of his father’s sun temple. However, the methods used here were far more radical. The walls were built with small stone blocks . The interior was filled with broken stone, sand, mud, and even broken pottery. The outer surface was again covered with thin limestone, obscuring the pyramid’s true structure. These practices represent a significant departure from the impeccable engineering approach of the 4th dynasty. During the 5th dynasty, pyramids were no longer symbols of immense imperial power, but rather symbols of cost-effectiveness that sought to preserve their form. While the new construction methods employed during the reigns of Userf and Sahure appeared impressive at first glance, they were considerably less durable compared to the earlier pyramids at Saqqara, Dashur, and Giza . The weakness of the core, especially when the outer covering was removed, was immediately apparent. This suggests that the power of the 5th dynasty kings had significantly diminished compared to previous dynasties. This was a significant sign. As central authority weakened, the massive projects of the 4th dynasty became increasingly impossible. Yet, interestingly, while the pyramids themselves shrank, the temples and religious complexes surrounding them grew larger. Sahure’s complex is a prime example. While the pyramid itself was smaller, the surrounding structures were remarkably extensive. Furthermore, the temple walls contained running reliefs totaling over 1,200 feet . By comparison, one of the temples in the great pyramid complex of Khufu is only 325 feet long. So, while the pyramids of the 5th dynasty appear to have diminished in size, they were still impressive in terms of architectural integrity and the scope of their religious complexes . However, the real decline became evident in the 6th dynasty, which followed the 5th dynasty . This period began approximately 2345 BCE and lasted until 2180 BCE. Due to the fragmentary nature of the sources, the dates are unclear. There are also significant discrepancies among the king lists. Tety, considered the first king of the 6th dynasty, is a ruler mentioned in the Turin King List. However, because the papyrus fragment depicting him has been lost, his reign is uncertain. He is thought to have reigned for approximately 12 years. However, Maneto extends this figure to over 30 years. Tety’s Horus name was Sehetepta, meaning “the pacifier of two kingdoms .” This name clearly suggests that the dynastic transition was unsettling and that there was internal strife in Egypt. Moreover, it foreshadowed greater fragmentation to come. The number of rulers of the 6th dynasty is disputed. Some lists mention 12 kings, but most of them reigned for very short periods . The person who truly left their mark on the dynasty is King Pepi the second. The Turin List and Maneto claim Pepy’s reign exceeded 90 years. Even if he ascended to the throne as a child, this period seems unrealistic. The years of a king’s reign were generally recorded based on the cattle census for agricultural taxes . This census may have been conducted twice a year in some periods. Therefore , Pepy’s 90 years actually represent a reign of 6,070 years. The real problem was not the length of Pepy’s reign, but the gradual erosion of royal authority during this period. From the middle of the 5th dynasty onward , the Nomarcks, regional governors and nobles, began to withdraw from Memphis and into their own strongholds. This strengthening increased significantly during the 6th dynasty . While the power of the central authority collapsed, the local influence of the Nomarcks rose rapidly. This was the fundamental rupture that brought about the end of the golden age of the Old Kingdom. The end of the Old Kingdom is generally attributed to the death of Najar Kare Sipdah, considered the last king of the 6th dynasty . He is thought to have reigned briefly, approximately between 2184 and 2181 BC . However, as always, the dates are uncertain. Even more striking is the widespread acceptance that the Seven Dynasties, once considered the final dynasty of the Old Kingdom, likely never existed . This period was likely a chaotic transition, emerging as a tradition filling a historical gap rather than a true dynasty . Surviving king lists are central to the debate about the 7th dynasty. The primary source for this is the Egyptologist Maneto’s Egyptiaca, written in the 3rd century BC . However, this work has not survived in its complete form, and our current knowledge comes from third- or fourth-hand sources, through summaries and excerpts passed down over the centuries. Maneto notes the rapid rise and fall of numerous kings in the 7th dynasty, many of whom he does not name. However, no other king lists mention this dynasty. Neither the Turin king list nor the Abydos king list, after the 6th dynasty, moves directly to the 8th dynasty. Therefore, many Egyptologists believe the 7th dynasty never actually existed . Some scholars argue that Maneto invented this dynasty as a literary device to emphasize the great collapse and disarray at the end of the 6th dynasty . Others argue that Maneton misinterpreted the rapid change of kings in the 8th Dynasty. The generally accepted view today is that the 7th Dynasty is not a historical reality. Despite this, the dynasty numbers are not rearranged to avoid completely altering the chronology, as this would overturn over 200 years of academic knowledge. The underlying argument is The reason is quite clear. The period following the collapse of the 6th dynasty was indeed a prolonged period of turmoil and loss of authority. Central royal power collapsed, regions began to act independently, and the country was plagued by instability for approximately 100 years. While the old kingdom had maintained a stable structure under the rule of only four dynasties for half a millennium, this order disintegrated dramatically at the end of the 6th dynasty . The approximately 130-year period following the collapse of the 6th dynasty represents an era of utter turmoil in Egyptian history. Moreover, even excluding the supposedly fictional 7th dynasty, four distinct dynasties ruled the country during this short period . The 8th dynasty lasted only about 20 years. During this period, the throne changed hands among kings who didn’t even last a few years . The 9th dynasty, which followed, was even longer- lasting. However, it was marked by the reign of numerous tyrants, particularly Ahtes the Cruel, who overthrew the last ruler of the 8th dynasty. The 10th and 11th dynasties that followed are thought to have been rival polities that emerged simultaneously. This is because the country was torn apart by civil war and governed from two different centers. This period also explains the abundance of kings. The record of dozens of rulers within a 130-year period is not actually the result of rapid succession, but rather of simultaneous rival dynasties. The establishment of Herakleopolis Magna as a new capital by the 9th dynasty, while Memphis remained the royal center , is the clearest indication of a fragmented political structure. Naturally, in this climate of collapse, the great pyramid projects of the old kingdom came to an abrupt halt. No more massive tomb complexes were built, and the central government lacked the power to sustain large-scale construction . Therefore, modern Egyptologists refer to this chaotic period, which began with the end of the sixth dynasty and lasted approximately one year, as the first intermediate period. It marked the complete end of the old kingdom’s glory, the collapse of royal authority, and the reign of civil wars and fragmented governments. However, after this dark period, towards the end of the 3,000th century, royal power was restored , and a new golden age, known as the Middle Kingdom, emerged. Middle Kingdom rulers attempted to recreate the grandeur of the Old Kingdom, and a few kings even built great pyramids. However, these pyramids, built of brick and clay cores, were not as durable as the massive stone monuments of the Old Kingdom , and many collapsed over time. Nevertheless, the magnificent temples, obelisks, and colossal statues of both the Middle Kingdom and the subsequent New Kingdom were deeply inspired by the culture of the Old Kingdom. For the Old Kingdom was not only the first great golden age in Egyptian history but also served as a standard of grandeur to which all subsequent kings aspired . Ancient Egypt’s Old Kingdom period holds a special place not only in Egyptian history but also in the development of human civilization. For thousands of years, agriculture, trade, and settled life had progressed slowly but steadily around the Fertile Crescent . However, in Egypt, this progress accelerated at a certain stage. The emergence of hieroglyphic writing, the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under a single rule, and the formation of a centralized cultural order formed the basis of this major transformation. The brightest point of this transformation occurred during the Old Kingdom, which lasted half a millennium. It is not difficult to understand why Baron von Bunsen described this period as a golden age. The Old Kingdom is often associated with a single symbol: the pyramids. The Great Pyramid at Giza is the only one of the wonders of the ancient world still standing today. Moreover, most of the other wonders were built some 2,000 years later. This demonstrates the magnitude of the engineering skill and organized effort demonstrated by tens of thousands of people approximately 5,000 years ago. It also reminds us of the level reached by the economic, political, and cultural structures of the Old Kingdom. All of this transformed the Old Kingdom from a period overshadowed only by stone monuments into one of the most impressive achievements in human history . What made the Old Kingdom special? The golden age of an advanced civilization. Was it a reflection of the past? Or was it just a brief but striking flash in the flow of history, represented by giant pyramids ? 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