Do You Like Fish? Ok
Use The Captions For Extra Detail Enjoy The Intro Ok So Now It Begins (Latin: gladiator, “swordsman”, from gladius, “sword”) A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire, *Shatter Sound* As The Roman Empire Dies
In violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Wikipedia Scrolling WAT IS THIS
A “blindfolded gladiator”, or a “gladiator who fought blind”. Cicero jokingly refers to andabata in a letter to his friend Trebatius Testa, who was stationed in Gaul. The passage associates the andabata loosely with essedarii, chariot fighters. The word is extremely rare in classical sources, and of doubtful etymology; Delamarre suggests it as a Latinised borrowing from Gaulish.
The bestiarius was a beast-fighter.
Bustuarius was a “tomb fighter,” from bustum, “tomb”, a generalised reference to the association of gladiatorial combat with funeral games (munera). Servius notes that it had once been “the custom to put captives to death at the graves of strong men, which later seemed a bit cruel, so it was decided to have gladiators fight at the tombs.” Even among gladiators, it was an unflattering term: Cicero used it to liken the morals of his enemy Clodius to those of the very lowest gladiator class
The cestus was a fist-fighter or boxer who wore the cestus, a heavy-duty type of knuckleduster, but otherwise had no armour. The dimachaerus (Greek διμάχαιρος, “bearing two knives”) used a sword in each hand
The essedarius (from the Latin word for a Celtic war-chariot, essedum) was likely first brought to Rome from Britain by Julius Caesar. Essedarii appear as arena-fighters in many inscriptions after the 1st century AD, apparently pitted against opponents of their own type. It is not known whether the essedarius entered the arena in his chariot, then dismounted and fought on foot, or fought while in the chariot. Some, or possibly all essedarii were driven by charioteers. No relevant pictorial evidence survives
Literally a “Gaul”; either a prisoner of war, as in the earliest forms of munus, or else a gladiator equipped with Gaulish arms and armour, who fought in what Romans would have recognised as a “Gaulish style”. Probably a heavyweight, and heavily armoured, the Gallus seems to have been replaced by, or perhaps transformed into, the murmillo, soon after Gaul’s absorption as a Roman province
Gaul (Latin: Gallia)[1] was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of 494,000 km2 (191,000 sq mi).[2] According to Julius Caesar, who took control of the region on behalf of the Roman Republic, Gaul was divided into three parts: Gallia Celtica, Belgica, and Aquitania.
The laquearius may have been a kind of Paegniarius, or a type of retiarius who tried to catch his adversaries with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.
The retiarius (“net fighter”) developed in the early Augustan period. He carried a trident and a net, equipment styled on that of a fisherman. The retiarius wore a loincloth held in place by a wide belt and a larger arm guard (manica) extending to the shoulder and left side of the chest. He fought without the protection of a helmet. Occasionally a metal shoulder shield (galerus) was added to protect the neck and lower face. A tombstone found in Romania shows a retiarius holding a dagger with four spikes (each at the corner of a square guard) instead of the usual bladed dagger. A variation to the normal combat was a retiarius facing two secutores at the same time. The retiarus stood on a bridge or raised platform with stairs and had a pile of fist-sized stones to throw at his adversaries. While the retiarius tried to keep them at bay, the secutores tried to scale the structure to attack him. The platform, called a pons (bridge), may have been constructed over water.[23] Retiarii usually fought secutores but sometimes fought myrmillones.[24] There was an effeminate class of gladiator who fought as a retiarius tunicatus. They wore tunics to distinguish them from the usual retiarius, and were looked on as a social class even lower than infamia.
A gladiator who had earned his freedom received a wooden sword (a rudis) or perhaps a wooden rod (another meaning of the word rudis, which was a “slender stick” used as a practice staff/sword). A wooden sword is widely assumed, however, Cicero in a letter speaks of a gladiator being awarded a rod in a context that suggests the latter: Tam bonus gladiator, rudem tam cito accepisti? (Being so good a gladiator, have you so quickly accepted the rod?) If he chose to remain a gladiator, he was called a rudiarius. These were very popular with the public as they were experienced. Not all rudiarii continued to fight; there was a hierarchy of rudiarii that included trainers, helpers, referees, and fighters.
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In pop-up or automatic toasters, a single vertical piece of bread is dropped into a slot on the top of the toaster. A lever on the side of the toaster is pressed down, lowering the bread into the toaster and activating the heating elements. The length of the toasting cycle (and therefore the degree of toasting) is adjustable via a lever, knob, or series of pushbuttons, and when an internal device determines that the toasting cycle is complete, the toaster turns off and the toast pops up out of the slots. The completion of toasting may be determined by a timer or by a thermal sensor, such as a bimetallic strip, located close to the toast.[citation needed] Toasters may also be used to toast other foods such as teacakes, toaster pastry, potato waffles and crumpets, though the resultant accumulation of fat and sugar inside the toaster can contribute to its eventual failure. Among pop-up toasters, those toasting two slices of bread are more purchased than those which can toast four.[1] Pop-up toasters can have a range of appearances beyond just a square box and may have an exterior finish of chrome, copper, brushed metal, or any color plastic.[1] The marketing and price of toasters may not be an indication of quality for producing good toast.[1] A typical modern two-slice pop-up toaster can draw from 600 to 1200 watts.[2] Beyond the basic toasting function, some pop-up toasters offer additional features such as: One-sided toasting, which some people prefer when toasting bagels The ability to power the heat elements in only one of the toaster’s several slots Slots of various depths, lengths, and widths to accommodate a variety of bread types Provisions to allow the bread to be lifted higher than the normal raised position, so toast that has shifted during the toasting process can safely and easily be removed Toaster oven A toaster oven Toaster ovens are small electric ovens that provide toasting capability plus a limited amount of baking and broiling capability. Similarly to a conventional oven, toast or other items are placed on a small wire rack, but toaster ovens can heat foods faster than regular ovens due to their small volume. They are especially useful when the users do not also have a kitchen stove with an integral oven, such as in smaller apartments and in recreational vehicles such as truck campers. Conveyor toaster A conveyor toaster Conveyor toasters are designed to make many slices of toast and are generally used in the catering industry, restaurants, cafeterias, institutional cooking facilities, and other commercial food service situations where constant or high-volume toasting is required. Bread is toasted at a rate of 300–1600 slices an hour;[citation needed] the doneness control on such a toaster adjusts the conveyor speed, thus altering the time during which the bread is near the heat elements. Conveyor toasters have been produced for home use; in 1938, for example, the Toast-O-Lator went into limited production.[3] History Toaster before the use of electricity Toaster with an Edison screw fitting, c. 1909 General Electric Model D-12 toaster, from 1910s Before the development of the electric toaster, sliced bread was toasted by placing it in a metal frame or on a long-handled toasting fork[4] and holding it near a fire or over a kitchen grill. From the 16th century onward, long-handled forks were used as toasters, “sometimes with fitment for resting on bars of grate or fender.”[5] Wrought-iron scroll-ornamented toasters appeared in Scotland in the 17th century.[6] Another wrought-iron toaster was documented to be from 18th-century England.[7] Utensils for toasting bread over open flames appeared in America in the early 19th century, including decorative implements made from wrought iron.[8] Development of the heating element The primary technical problem in toaster development at the turn of the 20th century was the development of a heating element which would be able to sustain repeated heating to red-hot temperatures without breaking or becoming too brittle.[citation needed] A similar technical challenge had recently been surmounted with the invention of the first successful incandescent lightbulbs by Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. However, the light bulb took advantage of the presence of a vacuum, something that could not be used for the toaster. The first stand alone electric toaster, the Eclipse, was made in 1893 by Crompton & Company of Chelmsford, Essex. Its bare wires toasted bread on one side at a time.[9][10] The problem of the heating element was solved in 1905 by a young engineer named Albert Marsh, who designed an alloy of nickel and chromium, which came to be known as Nichrome.[11][12][13][14] The first US patent application for an electric toaster was filed by George Schneider of the American Electrical Heater Company of Detroit in collaboration with Marsh.[12][15] One of the first applications that the Hoskins company had considered for its Chromel wire was for use in toasters, but the company eventually abandoned such efforts, to focus on making just the wire itself.[13] The first commercially successful electric toaster was introduced by General Electric in 1909 for the GE model D-12.[12][16][17] Dual-side toasting and automated pop-up technologies United States patent #1,394,450. “Bread-Toaster”, patented 18 October 1921 by Charles Strite. In 1913, Lloyd Groff Copeman and his wife Hazel Berger Copeman applied for various toaster patents, and in that same year, the Copeman Electric Stove Company introduced a toaster with an automatic bread turner.[18] Before this, electric toasters cooked bread on one side, meaning the bread needed to be flipped by hand in order to cook both sides. Copeman’s toaster turned the bread around without having to touch it.[19] The automatic pop-up toaster, which ejects the toast after toasting it, was first patented by Charles Strite in 1921.[20] In 1925, using a redesigned version of Strite’s toaster, the Waters Genter Company introduced the Model 1-A-1 Toastmaster,[21] the first automatic, pop-up, household toaster that could brown bread on both sides simultaneously, set the heating element on a timer, and eject the toast when finished.[citation needed] Toasting technology after the 1940s In the 1980s, some high-end U.S. toasters featured automatic toast lowering and raising, without the need to operate levers – simply dropping the bread into one of these “elevator toasters”,[22] such as the Sunbeam Radiant Control toaster models made from the late 1940s through the 1990s, begins the toasting cycle. These toasters use the mechanically multiplied thermal expansion of the resistance wire in the center element assembly to lower the bread; the inserted slice of bread trips a lever switch to activate the heating elements, and their thermal expansion is harnessed to lower the bread. When the toast is done, as determined by a small bimetallic sensor actuated by the heat radiating off the toast, the heaters are shut off and the pull-down mechanism returns to its room-temperature position, slowly raising the finished toast. This sensing of the heat radiating off the toast means that regardless of the type of bread (white or whole grain) or its initial temperature (even frozen), the bread is always toasted to the same consistency.[23] Research A number of projects have added advanced technology to toasters. In 1990, Simon Hackett and John Romkey created “The Internet Toaster”, a toaster which could be controlled from the Internet.[24] In 2001, Robin Southgate from Brunel University in England created a toaster that could toast a graphic of the weather prediction (limited to sunny or cloudy) onto a piece of bread.[25] The toaster dials a pre-coded phone number to get the weather forecast.[26] In 2005, Technologic Systems, a vendor of embedded systems hardware, designed a toaster running the NetBSD Unix-like operating system as a sales demonstration system.[27] In 2012, Basheer Tome, a student at Georgia Tech, designed a toaster using color sensors to toast bread to the exact shade of brown specified by a user.[28] A toaster which used Twitter was cited as an early example of an application of the Internet of Things.[29][30] Toasters have been used as advertising devices for online marketing.[31] With permanent modifications, a toaster oven can be used as a reflow oven for the purpose of soldering electronic components to circuit boards.[32][33] Similar inventions A hot dog toaster A hot dog toaster is a variation on the toaster design; it can cook hot dogs without use of microwaves or stoves. The appliance looks similar to a regular toaster, except that there are two slots in the middle for hot dogs, and two slots on the outside for toasting the buns. Or there can be a set of skewers upon which hot dog are impaled.[citation needed] See also icon Food portal Technology portal Bachelor griller Dualit List of cooking appliances List of home appliances Pie iron References Consumer Reports (November 2012). “Toaster Buying Guide”. consumerreports.org. Retrieved 17 March 2014. “Automatic Toaster Guide-Melpomene.org-“. melpomene.org. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2017. “Toast-O-Lator Electric Toaster by Crocker Wheeler Co., 1939 – The Henry Ford”. thehenryford.org. Retrieved 26 November 2018. Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (29 November 2004). Encyclopedia of Kitchen History. Taylor & Francis. p. 392. ISBN 978-1-57958-380-4. Cameron, Ian; Kingsley-Rowe, Elizabeth (1973). Collins Encyclopedia of Antiques. Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-435022-6. Hume, Ivor Noël; Hume, Audrey Noel; Hume, Audrey Noël (2016-07-18). The Archaeology of Martin’s Hundred: Part 1, Interpretive Studies; Part 2, Artifact Catalog. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-1-5128-1971-7. Education, Great Britain Board of (1911). Report for the Year 1909-1917 on the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Bethnal Green Museum. “The Howard Roth Collection of Early American Iron | Skinner Auctions 2744M, 2743T and 2757B”. issuu. Retrieved 18 July 2017. Binney, Ruth (1999). The Origins of Everyday Things. Reader’s Digest. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7621-0141-2. “Toast”. Museum of Design in Plastics. Museum of Design in Plastics. Retrieved 23 November 2022. U.S. Patent 811,859 Norcross, Eric (2006). “The Cyber Toaster Museum”. Toaster.org. The Toaster Museum Foundation. pp. section “1900–1920”. Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 16 August 2008. George, William F. (2003). Antique Electric Waffle Irons 1900–1960: A History of the Appliance Industry in 20th Century America. Trafford Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 1-55395-632-X. Retrieved 16 August 2008. Clark, Neil M. (May 1927). “The World’s Most Tragic Man Is the One Who Never Starts”. The American. Archived from the original on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 24 February 2007.; republished in hotwire: The Newsletter of the Toaster Museum Foundation, vol. 3, no. 3, online edition. Schneider, George (17 July 1906) “Electric cooker” U.S. Patent 825,938 Dana Gloger (31 March 2009). “A Toast to the Toaster… 100 Years Old and Still Going Strong”. Daily Express. Retrieved 31 March 2009. F. E. Shailor (22 February 1910) “Electric heater” U.S. Patent 950,058 Copeman, Kent L. “Lloyd Groff Copeman”. LloydCopeman.com. Retrieved 18 October 2011. “Lloyd Groff Copeman: The Patent Man”. Absolute Michigan. Leelanau Communications, Inc. 5 May 2006. Retrieved 18 October 2011. United States patent 1,394,450, “Bread-Toaster”, 1921 “Toastmaster Toasters: When They Were Made”. Toaster Museum Foundation. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2011. “Kenmore “Elevator” Toaster”. National Museum of American History. Retrieved 2022-11-23. “Automatic toaster”. Dern, Daniel. “11.6. I heard someone hooked a toaster to the Internet?! Really?”. Your Internet Consultant – The FAQs of Life Online. Kay Savetz. Retrieved 25 November 2008. “A small slice of design”. BBC News. 6 April 2001. Retrieved 25 May 2010. Orlowski, Andrew (4 June 2001). “Bread as a display device – we have pictures”. The Register. Retrieved 19 October 2011. “NetBSD Toaster with the TS-7200 ARM9 SBC”. Technologic Systems. Retrieved 19 October 2011. “Color-Sensing Toasters? A Student Reimagines the Home”. Bloomberg.com. BloombergBusinessweek. 26 December 2012. Archived from the original on December 29, 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2012. Costanzo, Sam (25 July 2013). “This high-tech toaster can Tweet”. The Boston Globe. Boston: NYTC. ISSN 0743-1791. Retrieved 17 March 2014. Ganapati, Priya (5 August 2009). “Toaster, Toilet Lead Appliance Invasion of Twitter”. Wired. Retrieved 17 March 2014. Murphy Kelly, Samantha (26 August 2013). “Eat What You Tweet: Toaster Strudel Personalizes Pastries on Twitter”. mashable.com. Retrieved 17 March 2014. Kraft, Caleb (22 October 2008). “Reflowing with a toaster”. Hack a Day. Retrieved 19 October 2011. “Honorable Mention”. DesignStellaris2006. Retrieved 19 October 2011. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Toasters. U.S. Patent 825,938 Electric cooker U.S. Patent 950,058 Electric heater, GE D-12 Toaster at HowStuffWorks vte Home appliances Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata GermanyIsraelUnited States Categories: 19th-century inventionsCooking appliancesHome appliancesKitchenOvensProducts introduced in 1909 This page was last edited on 6 November 2023, at 19:25 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaCode of ConductDevelopersStatisticsCookie
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